Bovine mastitis in a small-scale dairy herd: microbiological diagnosis, antimicrobial susceptibility, and strategic analysis
Article Sidebar
Main Article Content
Abstract
Mastitis is an inflammatory condition of the mammary gland and a major cause of economic loss in dairy herds, affecting milk yield, quality, and animal welfare. This study was conducted in a Holstein herd in Aguascalientes, Mexico, to identify key bacterial pathogens, assess antimicrobial susceptibility, and evaluate milking practices using a Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats and Analytic Hierarchy Process (SWOT–AHP) framework. Seasonal sampling was performed during the dry and rainy periods, with 129 milk samples and 66 equipment swabs collected. A higher proportion of bacteriologically positive milk samples was recorded in the rainy season (44 %) compared to the dry season (16 %). Coagulase-negative staphylococcus was the most frequently isolated microorganism, identified in both milk and surfaces. Mixed infections and environmental contamination were more prevalent during the rainy season. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing revealed a significant decline in sensitivity to penicillin, ampicillin, erythromycin, and tetracycline during the rainy season, while resistance to oxacillin remained consistently high. The SWOT-AHP analysis identified twelve strategic factors, with the highest global priorities assigned to the owner’s technical training (0.101), seasonal mastitis risk (0.101), and the potential for genetic improvement (0.101). Additional relevant factors included staff workload and hygiene challenges. The integration of microbiological data with strategic analysis provided a practical decision-making framework tailored to small-scale dairy operations. These findings underscore the value of continuous monitoring, rational antimicrobial use, and context-specific hygiene strategies. The combined application of qualitative diagnostics and semiquantitative scoring offers a replicable model for improving udder health and sustainability in tropical dairy production systems.
Article Details
References
Rocha Barros R, Baumgratz AC, Rodrigues Miranda K, Pauer H, Lopes Teixeira F, de Paula GR. Mastitis-associated bacterial etiologies and antimicrobial susceptibility profiles. Ensaios e Ciência Ciências Biológicas Agrárias e da Saúde. 2024;28(4):532–535. doi.org/10.17921/1415-6938.2024v28n4p532-535. DOI: https://doi.org/10.17921/1415-6938.2024v28n4p532-535
Guimarães FF, Nóbrega DB, Richini-Pereira VB, Langoni H. Outbreak of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)-associated mastitis in a closed dairy herd. Journal of Dairy Science. 2017;100(1):726–730. doi.org/10.3168/jds.2016-11700. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2016-11700
Stanek P, Żółkiewski P, Januś E. A review on mastitis in dairy cows research: current status and future perspectives. Agriculture. 2024;14(8):1292. doi.org/10.3390/agriculture14081292. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture14081292
Fadillah A. Milk quality and mastitis control strategies in Indonesian smallholder dairy farms: an integrated epidemiological and economic analysis [doctoral thesis]. Wageningen, Nederland: Wageningen University; 2025. doi.org/10.18174/681311.
Mazreku N, Sylejmani D, Robaj A. Prevalence of subclinical mastitis, related risk factors, and antimicrobial susceptibility of bacteria isolated from the milk of dairy cows in Kosovo. Veterinární Medicína. 2025;70(4):117–123. doi.org/10.17221/102/2024-VETMED. DOI: https://doi.org/10.17221/102/2024-VETMED
Miao Z, de Buck J. Discriminating bovine mastitis pathogens by combining loop-mediated isothermal amplification and amplicon-binding split trehalase assay. Frontiers in Veterinary Science. 2024;11:1389184. doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2024.1389184. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2024.1389184
Ali T, Kamran K, Raziq A, Wazir I, Ullah R, Shah P, et al. Prevalence of mastitis pathogens and antimicrobial susceptibility of isolates from cattle and buffaloes in northwest of Pakistan. Frontiers in Veterinary Science. 2021;8:746755. doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2021.746755. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2021.746755
Nogara KF, Busanello M, Zopollatto M. Relationship between subclinical mastitis occurrence and pathogen prevalence in two different automatic milking systems. Animals. 2025;15(6):776. doi.org/10.3390/ani15060776. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15060776
Carvalho-Sombra TCF, Fernandes DD, Bezerra BMO, Nunes-Pinheiro DCS. Systemic inflammatory biomarkers and somatic cell count in dairy cows with subclinical mastitis. Veterinary and Animal Science. 2021;11:100165. doi.org/10.1016/j.vas.2021.100165. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vas.2021.100165
Li X, Xu C, Liang B, Kastelic JP, Han B, Tong X, et al. Alternatives to antibiotics for treatment of mastitis in dairy cows. Frontiers in Veterinary Science. 2023;10:1160350. doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2023.1160350. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2023.1160350
Morales-Ubaldo AL, Rivero-Perez N, Valladares-Carranza B, Velázquez-Ordoñez V, Delgadillo-Ruiz L, Zaragoza-Bastida A. Bovine mastitis, a worldwide impact disease: prevalence, antimicrobial resistance, and viable alternative approaches. Veterinary and Animal Science. 2023;21:100306. doi.org/10.1016/j.vas.2023.100306. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vas.2023.100306
Rollin E, Dhuyvetter KC, Overton MW. The cost of clinical mastitis in the first 30 days of lactation: an economic modeling tool. Preventive Veterinary Medicine. 2015;122(3):257–264. doi.org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2015.11.006. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2015.11.006
Palii AP, Kovalchuk YO, Boyko YA, Bondaruk YV, Diachuk PV, Duka TM, et al. Impact of various milking equipment on incidence of mastitis in dairy herd. Ukrainian Journal of Ecology. 2020;10(5):160–165. doi.org/10.15421/2020_224. DOI: https://doi.org/10.15421/2020_224
Rajkumar SM, Nayakvadi S, Narnaware SD, Racharla SR, Vithlrao US. Prevalence of subclinical mastitis, associated risk factors and pathogens in dairy cattle of West Coastal India. The Indian Journal of Veterinary Science and Biotechnology. 2024;20(5):97–101. doi.org/10.48165/ijvsbt.20.5.18.
Passetti RAC, Eiras CE, Gomes LC, Santos JF, Prado IN. Intensive dairy farming systems from Holland and Brazil: SWOT analyse comparison. Acta Scientiarum Animal Sciences. 2016;38(4):439–446. doi.org/10.4025/actascianimsci.v38i4.31467. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4025/actascianimsci.v38i4.31467
Sabbag O, Costa SMAL. Strategic planning for dairy cattle: SWOT analysis applied to a property of a farmers' association in Dracena, São Paulo state, Brazil. Interações. 2015;16(1):109–118. doi.org/10.1590/1518-70122015109. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/1518-70122015109
Rodríguez MF, Gomez AP, Ceballos-Garzon A. Antimicrobial resistance profiles of staphylococcus isolated from cows with subclinical mastitis: do strains from the environment and from humans contribute to the dissemination of resistance among bacteria on dairy farms in Colombia? Antibiotics. 2023;12(11):1574. doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics12111574. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics12111574
Aguirre-Sánchez JR, Castro-del Campo N, Medrano-Félix JA, et al. Genomic insights of Staphylococcus aureus associated with bovine mastitis in a high livestock activity region of Mexico. Journal of Veterinary Science. 2024;25(4):e42. doi.org/10.4142/jvs.23286. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4142/jvs.23286
Gobierno del Estado de Aguascalientes. Diagnóstico Municipal Rincón de Romos [PDF]. Aguascalientes, Mexico: Secretaría de Planeación y Desarrollo Regional; 2024. https://egobierno2.aguascalientes.gob.mx/seplade/seieg/archivosVarios/Diagnosticos/007.%20Diagn%C3%B3stioco%20Rinc%C3%B3n%20de%20Romos.pdf
Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía. Anuario Estadístico y Geográfico de Aguascalientes 2020 [PDF]. Aguascalientes, Mexico; 2020. https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/productos/prod_serv/contenidos/espanol/bvinegi/productos/historicos/1334/702825157210/702825157210_1.pdf
Carter GR. Diagnostic Procedures in Veterinary Bacteriology and Mycology. 4th edition. Springfield, IIlinois, US: Charles C Thomas Publisher; 1984.
Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. Performance standards for antimicrobial susceptibility testing. CLSI Supplement M100. 33rd edition. Wayne, Pennsylvania, US; 2023. https://clsi.org
Salam MA, Al-Amin MY, Pawar JS, Akhter N, Lucy IB. Conventional methods and future trends in antimicrobial susceptibility testing. Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences. 2023;30(3):103582. doi.org/10.1016/j.sjbs.2023.103582. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sjbs.2023.103582
Wasike CB, Magothe TM, Kahi AK, Peters KJ. Factors that influence the efficiency of beef and dairy cattle recording system in Kenya: a SWOT-AHP analysis. Tropical Animal Health and Production. 2011;43(1):141–152. doi.org/10.1007/s11250-010-9666-3. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-010-9666-3
Mor RS, Bhardwaj A, Singh S. Integration of SWOT-AHP approach for measuring the critical factors of dairy supply chain. Logistics. 2019;3(1):9. doi.org/10.3390/logistics3010009. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/logistics3010009
Mushimiyimana I, Vedeld P. Smallholder agroforestry in Rwanda: a SWOT-AHP analysis. Small-scale Forestry. 2012;11(3):285–300. doi.org/10.1007/s11842-011-9184-9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11842-011-9184-9
Mercer DE. Exploring the potential for silvopasture adoption in south-central Florida: an application of SWOT-AHP method. Agricultural Systems. 2004;81(3):185–199. doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2003.09.004. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2003.09.004
Saaty TL. The analytic hierarchy process: planning, priority setting, resource allocation. New York, US: McGraw-Hill; 1980.
Turk R, Koledić M, Maćešić N, Benić M, Dobranić V, Đuričić D, et al. The role of oxidative stress and inflammatory response in the pathogenesis of mastitis in dairy cows. mLjekarstvo. 2017;67(2):91–101. doi.org/10.15567/mljekarstvo.2017.0201. DOI: https://doi.org/10.15567/mljekarstvo.2017.0201
Zigo F, Vasil' M, Ondrašovičová S, Výrostková J, Bujok J, Pecka-Kielb E. Maintaining optimal mammary gland health and prevention of mastitis. Frontiers in Veterinary Science. 2021;8:607311. doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2021.607311. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2021.607311
Petzl W, Zerbe H, Günther J, et al. Pathogen-specific immune response in bovine mastitis. Research in Veterinary Science. 2018;116:35–41. doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc.2017.12.012. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc.2017.12.012
Silva N, Paixão T, Sousa F, Costa L, Martins C. A practical guide to diagnosing bovine mastitis: a review. Frontiers in Animal Science. 2024;5:1504873. doi.org/10.3389/fanim.2024.1504873. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fanim.2024.1504873
An S, Mi S, Chen S, et al. Unraveling key transposable elements in pathogen-induced bovine mastitis through comparative in vivo and in vitro transcriptomic analysis. BMC Genomics. 2025;26:611. doi.org/10.1186/s12864-025-11740-5. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12864-025-11740-5
Chakraborty S, Dhama K, Tiwari R, Yatoo MI, Khurana SK, Khandia R, et al. Technological interventions and advances in the diagnosis of intramammary infections in animals with emphasis on bovine population –a review. The Veterinary Quarterly. 2019;39(1):76–94. doi.org/10.1080/01652176.2019.1642546. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01652176.2019.1642546
Sharun K, Dhama K, Tiwari R, Gugjoo MB, Yatoo MI, Patel SK, et al. Advances in therapeutic and managemental approaches of bovine mastitis: a comprehensive review. The Veterinary Quarterly. 2021;41(1):107–136. doi.org/10.1080/01652176.2021.1882713. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01652176.2021.1882713
Raspanti CG, Bonetto CC, Vissio C, Pellegrino MS, Gentilini E. Prevalence and antibiotic susceptibility of coagulase-negative staphylococcus species from bovine subclinical mastitis in dairy herds in the central region of Argentina. Revista Argentina de Microbiología. 2016;48(1):50–56. doi.org/10.1016/j.ram.2015.12.001. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ram.2015.12.001
El-Sayed A, Kamel M. Bovine mastitis prevention and control in the post-antibiotic era. Tropical Animal Health and Production. 2021;53(2):236. doi.org/10.1007/s11250-021-02595-4. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-021-02680-9
Panigrahi M, Rajawat D, Nayak SS, Jain K, Nayak A, Rajput AS, et al. A comprehensive review on genomic insights and advanced technologies for mastitis prevention in dairy animals. Microbial Pathogenesis. 2025;199:107233. doi.org/10.1016/j.micpath.2024.107233. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micpath.2024.107233
Williamson J, Callaway T, Rollin E, Ryman V. Association of milk somatic cell count with bacteriological cure of intramammary infection –a review. Agriculture. 2022;12(9):1437. doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12091437. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12091437
Wegi FG. Review on coagulase negative staphylococcus: newly emerging mastitis causing pathogens in Ethiopia. Journal of Veterinary Medicine Research. 2023;10(1):1242. doi.org/10.47739/2378-931X/1242.
Abdullahi IN, Lozano C, Latorre-Fernández J, Zarazaga M, Stegger M, Torres C. Genomic analysis of multidrug-resistant coagulase-negative staphylococci from healthy humans and animals revealed unusual mechanisms of resistance and CRISPR-Cas system. International Microbiology. 2025;28(5):941–963. doi.org/10.1007/s10123-024-00577-9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10123-024-00577-9
Santos G, Bottino MP, Santos APC, Simoes LMS, Souza JC, Ferreira MBD, et al. Subclinical mastitis interferes with ovulation, oocyte and granulosa cell quality in dairy cows. Theriogenology. 2018;119:214-219. doi.org/10.1016/j.theriogenology.2018.04.028. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.theriogenology.2018.04.028
Dolecheck KA, García-Guerra A, Moraes LE. Quantifying the effects of mastitis on the reproductive performance of dairy cows: a meta-analysis. Journal of Dairy Science. 2019;102(9):8454–8477. doi.org/10.3168/jds.2018-15127. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2018-15127
Zhang T, Nickerson R, Zhang W, Peng X, Shang Y, Zhou Y, et al. The impacts of animal agriculture on One Health-bacterial zoonosis, antimicrobial resistance, and beyond. One Health. 2024;18:100748. doi.org/10.1016/j.onehlt.2024.100748. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.onehlt.2024.100748
Kurttila M, Pesonen M, Kangas J, Kajanus M. Utilizing the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) in SWOT analysis –a hybrid method and its application to a forest certification case. Forest Policy and Economics. 2000;1(1):41–52. doi.org/10.1016/S1389-9341(99)00004-0. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S1389-9341(99)00004-0
Rimhanen K, Mäkinen H, Kuisma M, Kahiluoto H. What enhances dairy system resilience? Empirical cases in Finland and Russia. Agricultural and Food Economics. 2023;11:31. doi.org/10.1186/s40100-023-00269-4. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40100-023-00269-4
Clasen JB, Fikse WF, Kargo M, Rydhmer L, Strandberg E, Østergaard S. Economic consequences of dairy crossbreeding in conventional and organic herds in Sweden. Journal of Dairy Science. 2020;103(5):4452–4464. doi.org/10.3168/jds.2019-16958. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2019-16958
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Principles of mastitis control. In: Milking, Milk Production Hygiene and Udder Health. Rome, Italy: FAO. http://www.fao.org/4/t0218e/t0218e04.htm
Mandi K, Chakravarty R, Ponnusamy K, Kadian KS, Dixit AK, Singh M, et al. SWOT analysis of dairy processing supply chain of JMF using analytical hierarchy process. Asian Journal of Dairy and Food Research. 2023;42(2):255–261. doi.org/10.18805/ajdfr.DR-1977. DOI: https://doi.org/10.18805/ajdfr.DR-2085
License
Veterinaria México OA by Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia - Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Licence.
Based on a work at http://www.revistas.unam.mx
- All articles in Veterinaria México OA re published under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported (CC-BY 4.0). With this license, authors retain copyright but allow any user to share, copy, distribute, transmit, adapt and make commercial use of the work, without needing to provide additional permission as long as appropriate attribution is made to the original author or source.
- By using this license, all Veterinaria México OAarticles meet or exceed all funder and institutional requirements for being considered Open Access.
- Authors cannot use copyrighted material within their article unless that material has also been made available under a similarly liberal license.